Water

Concept paper “Water Use and Management in Rajasthan”

Water in historical perspective

With
10% of India’s land area 5.6% of the population and less than 2% of the water. Rajasthan
offers a unique set of ecosystems for us to understand. This water distribution
is not uniform with 60% of the land concentrated in the desert districts
receiving about 40 % of the precipitation water and the remaining 40% area getting
60% of the precipitation. The Aravallis form the dividing line for the above. In
terms of river basins also 14 river basins fall east of the Aravallis and the
rest of the region divided into an undefined river basin of the desert.

The
water systems of the desert are quite different from the rest of Rajasthan. Pastoralism
has formed the mainstay of these economies. It is no wonder that Raja Ganga
Singh had to invite the Sikhs from Punjab to colonise the desert after the Gang
canal was brought to Bikaner. The desert primarily depended on the trade routes
falling between Afghanistan and Gujarat on one hand and current Pakistan and
rest of India on the other. The arrival of the Paliwals in Jaisalmer resulted
in the construction Khadins that heralded the development of systematic
agricultural production in the desert.

In
Udaipur due to hilly and forested region only the plains were cultivated as
also the valley bottoms. With
agriculture not developed, the tribal regions were distinguished by the
following:

-

Slash and burn
cultivation

-

Dependence on
forest produce – roots , tubers etc

-

The system of
begar on the land of the Thakur was common right upto independence and beyond.

Udaipur
in particular as also other districts are pocked marked with water harvesting
structures designed by the ruler as part of relief work on one hand, to provide
water for game animals and strategic conditions on the other. However a number
of them served as irrigation sources and met the drinking water requirements
for animals.

In
Bharatpur,A series
of shallow dams were constructed below to provide irrigation water. The agricultural practices of this region
were transformed as a result.

Though
the technology for blasting existed 100 years back, the wells could not be
deepened below 100 feet, it was only with the technology for blasting provided
by the tractor that resulted in wells reaching 200ft depth. Drilling rigs have
resulted in the drilling of tube wells well below 500 feet. Irrigation was therefore primarily in the
form of surface flows. The prime source of water was surface water, though in
place like Jaisalmer etc, sub surface water storage existed. In Udaipur the
well zone was know as Sehja (Shallow aquifer).
The surface storage structure in some places became renowned for a
number of activities. Pushkar Lake near Ajmer is famous for its cattle fair.
Beneshwar Triveni (meeting of three rivers, Gomti, Jakham and Som Kamla Amba to
form Mahi) also hosts a tribal fair once every year.

Division of India, New technology and
its implications for water management

With
the division of the country, strategic considerations warranted that the border
be secure, hence plan to extend the Gang canal across the border of Rajasthan. Some
of the current issues with relation to the conflicting demands on water being
placed on the canal need to be seen in this light. There was also an element of
providing livelihood to Pong dam oustees as also rehabilitating ousted people
in Rajasthan itself. The consequences of
uprooting people from their traditional livelihood and placing in unfamiliar
terrain and setting was not foreseen, the result is that the land passed into
the hands of others. On the other hand the pasturelands of the desert were
converted into agricultural lands.

The
green revolution technology which began in early 70s has considerably increased
water usage due to the fact that on one hand cropping intensity has increased,
while on the other hand the use of fertilizers necessitates the use of water to
achieve the full productivity potential. This development is in pockets. The
average productivity of Rajasthan is less than a fourth of that of Punjab,
nevertheless water usage as gone up considerably.

The
introduction of the drilling and blasting technology as mentioned above coupled
with the pump set
and cheap electricity ( electric connections were provided in a big way
between late70s and early 90s ) transformed the way ground water could be used
. Agriculture in Sikar and Jhunjunu got transformed, with the traditional dryland
farming by the Jats getting converted into prime agricultural land. Similar
transformations took place in Alwar, parts of Pali, Jodhpur, parts of Bhilwara etc. The deep
bores resulted in at least double cropping on one hand and removed the
dependence on rainfall on the other (though it is resulting in depletion of the
water table on a state wide scale which is a matter of serious concern the
areas where ground water has reached critical proportions has crossed 80%) In
Udaipur however due to the unique hydro-geological conditions which have poor permeability,
water harvesting is through wells and is still dependent on the annual recharge
pattern.

The
peculiarities of the rock structure and aquifers also need to be studied in the
context of the exploitation of ground water with large number of failed tube
wells and increased indebtedness of farmers on this count. Indebtedness on
account of well construction/ well deepening is also a major phenomenon in Southern
Rajasthan. Study in Jaisamand catchment area show that loans for wells account
for over a third of the loans and over 70% of the productive loans taken.

Recently
there has been considerable concern over the increase of fluoride contamination.
While historical details of this issue are not available, it can be said that
the increase is over the last 10- 15 years or so (though perhaps not as
dramatic as the data indicates). This has some relation with the depletion of
the ground water, though the peculiarities of the rock structure are the main determinant.

Industrial
development has also resulted in considerable pressure on water resources, both
in terms of quality as well as in quantity. While industries per se may not be
consuming all the water, the related developed of secondary and tertiary
occupations and expansion of the urbanization combine to cause a considerable
drain on both surface and ground water resources. Water is being increasingly
sourced from the rural areas to meet this burgeoning demand resulting in the
depletion of the natural resources particularly water and forests. The later
being the catchment area and source of springs, wells etc

Urban
development has not followed local specific criteria for water resource
development and the provision of easily accessible tap water in certain locations,
watering of lawns, development of water parks; fountains etc contribute to a
considerable wastage of water on one hand while at the same time destroying the
cultural ethos around water conservation on the other. The cultural ethic of pay and enjoy the
facility is being promoted along with commercialization of water, with scant
regard for its availability. Ultimately it is the poor and marginalized who
have to pay, waiting for long hours at hand pumps which draw limited quantities
of water of indifferent quality. The tradition of bawdies, water and other
urban water sources has fallen into disuse. In Udaipur for instance out of
around 100 bawdies hardly any are functional.

The issue of drought and its
implications

It
is in the context of the changing demand on the use of water and its
implications on livelihood that the issue of drought needs to be seen. Earlier
as seen a substantial portion depended on pastoralism and the forests. Obviously
the impact of drought on such population is quite different. On the one hand the
feudal rulers spent a good amount of their revenue on construction of water
harvesting structures apart from construction of palaces etc. This was a
drought management mechanism. On the other hand cattle were transported to
areas of relative plenty, to take advantage of the relative surplus in the
fodder regimes. Such transportation was not a free for all. Systems of tax regimes,
entry passes existed. The Maharaja of
Jodhpur for instance had to intimate the ruler of Ajmer, when his subjects
would be coming to graze in Ajmer.

The
increase in productivity after the green revolution and the deepening of
commodity relationships has changed the concept of drought and its management.

1.

Drought relief work has been taken up with a view to
provide cash / grain to the affected population. While the famine deaths took
place in certain parts of the state, in general drought relief has provided the
required relief in terms of mitigating lost incomes. The development of the
transport system has meant that water has been supplied by tankers and where
there has been widespread shortage in a region like Bhilwara, Pali, by train. Fodder
requirements have been met by transport subsidy. In Jaisalmer for instance,
this has become a regular feature of the economy. However the fodder required
by goats and sheep have been inadequately met and culling has been the major
option taken recourse to during drought. A similar culling is seen in cattle
which reflects their uneconomic nature if left to depend on the cash economy (as
against the free grazing regime).

2.

Efforts to ensure sustainability of the work, is
reflected in watershed management projects which have been funded by various
sources namely DDP, DPAP, IWDP, NWDPRA.
A total of 8,000 watersheds have been developed in this way across the
state covering 50,00,000 has. The evaluation studies show that 5-20% increase
in productivity has been achieved, as also the increase in water recharge and
its consequent use through irrigation. However despite this, the entire
livelihood needs of the entire population cannot be met and wage labour is an
important component.

3.

The role of mining, particular in the eco-sensitive
region of the Aravalis which is the dividing line between the rest of India and
the desert, have led to the depletion of the water tables on the one hand,
clogging of the pathways to the water bodies on the other as in Rajsamand and
depletion of the ground water in the influence zone of the mine. With mining
industry taking recourse to automatic machines, the traditional plea of
providing jobs is slowly vanishing, resulting in an increased stridency by
farmers who face double whammy (loss of employment from agriculture due to
depletion of the water table and loss of potential alternative job opportunities). In Jaisalmer, the destruction of the upper
catchment areas for mining has led to a depletion of water in the beris and moisture
regime in khadins below resulting in reduced output from the khadins.

Conclusions

The
issue of water scarcity and its management is reaching critical proportions in Rajasthan.
Despite this the problems are papered over in good years to surface with a
vengeance in bad years. The details of the stored water surface and ground water,
indicate that the reserves are being depleted which is likely to affect the
resilience factor. Traditional coping mechanisms have been destroyed.

Various
suggestions have been propounded to deal with the issue. These suggestions rely
on the following

1. centralized command
   and control system
2. price mechanism as
   reflected in the price of electricity
3. registration

The
suggestion has been examined in detail and it is clear that even while they do
not directly control the use of water, they lend themselves to (mis)use by a few.
The demands of urbanization and industrialization (plans for resurgent
Rajasthan being part of them), would mean that people in general are expected
to do the conservation, while there will be unlimited supply of water for
industry (benefiting whom?).

In
the context of surplus production of foodgrain in the irrigated pockets of the
country as also the State, the aggressive promotion of biofuel (as a dryland crop?)
is likely to turn the whole economics of production and consumption upside
down. This is again to fuel the consumption driven economy in the same manner
as water consumption has increased. An IWMI study shows that this promotion of
biofuels is likely to further aggravate the demand for water.

The
issue of a multistakeholder mechanism of governance needs to be evolved on the
basis of concrete water balance studies. Various efforts are taking place in
this direction. SPWD is also engaged in understanding the issues related to
water governance in three states and six river basins.

Viren
Lobo

Programme
director

SPWD